Science of learning

References

Every study cited on this site, newest first, with a link to the original paper wherever a confirmed DOI exists. Most were published since 2020; the classic studies remain as historical context.

  1. Hunter, C. L., Paida, K., Wilkinson, T. J., Masaki, K. & Thillainadesan, J. (2026). Microlearning to teach geriatric principles in hospitals: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Age and Ageing, 55(5), afag129.

    Principle: Microlearningdoi:10.1093/ageing/afag129

  2. Higdon, K. F., Neath, I., Surprenant, A. M. & Ensor, T. M. (2025). Distinctiveness, not dual coding, explains the picture-superiority effect. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 78(1), 180-191.

    Principle: Picture superioritydoi:10.1177/17470218241235520

  3. Moore, R. L., Hwang, W. & Moses, J. D. (2024). A systematic review of mobile-based microlearning in adult learner contexts. Educational Technology & Society, 27(1), 137-146.

    Principle: Microlearningdoi:10.30191/ETS.202401_27(1).SP02

  4. Zeng, J., Sun, D., Looi, C.-K. & Fan, A. C. W. (2024). Exploring the impact of gamification on students' academic performance: a comprehensive meta-analysis of studies from the year 2008 to 2023. British Journal of Educational Technology, 55(6), 2478-2502.

    Principle: Gamificationdoi:10.1111/bjet.13471

  5. Lee, Y.-M. (2023). Mobile microlearning: a systematic literature review and its implications. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(7), 4636-4651.

    Principle: Microlearningdoi:10.1080/10494820.2021.1977964

  6. Li, M., Ma, S. & Shi, Y. (2023). Examining the effectiveness of gamification as a tool promoting teaching and learning in educational settings: a meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1253549.

    Principle: Gamificationdoi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1253549

  7. Murre, J. M. J. (2023). How averaging individual curves transforms their shape: mathematical analyses with application to learning and forgetting curves. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 117, 102816.

    Principle: Forgetting curvedoi:10.1016/j.jmp.2023.102816

  8. Carpenter, S. K., Pan, S. C. & Butler, A. C. (2022). The science of effective learning with spacing and retrieval practice. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1(9), 496-511.

    Principle: Spacing and retrieval practicedoi:10.1038/s44159-022-00089-1

  9. Kim, S. K. & Webb, S. (2022). The effects of spaced practice on second language learning: a meta-analysis. Language Learning, 72(1), 269-319.

    Principle: Spaced repetitiondoi:10.1111/lang.12479

  10. Mertens, U., Finn, B. & Lindner, M. A. (2022). Effects of computer-based feedback on lower- and higher-order learning outcomes: a network meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 114(8), 1743-1772.

    Principle: Feedbackdoi:10.1037/edu0000764

  11. Noetel, M., Griffith, S., Delaney, O., Harris, N. R., Sanders, T., Parker, P., del Pozo Cruz, B. & Lonsdale, C. (2022). Multimedia design for learning: an overview of reviews with meta-meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 92(3), 413-454.

    Principle: Pictures and multimediadoi:10.3102/00346543211052329

  12. Radvansky, G. A., Doolen, A. C., Pettijohn, K. A. & Ritchey, M. (2022). A new look at memory retention and forgetting. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 48(11), 1698-1723.

    Principle: Forgetting curvedoi:10.1037/xlm0001110

  13. Ye, J., Su, J. & Cao, Y. (2022). A stochastic shortest path algorithm for optimizing spaced repetition scheduling. Proceedings of the 28th ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD 2022), 4381-4390.

    Principle: Memory modeldoi:10.1145/3534678.3539081

  14. Agarwal, P. K., Nunes, L. D. & Blunt, J. R. (2021). Retrieval practice consistently benefits student learning: a systematic review of applied research in schools and classrooms. Educational Psychology Review, 33(4), 1409-1453.

    Principle: Retrieval practicedoi:10.1007/s10648-021-09595-9

  15. Firth, J., Rivers, I. & Boyle, J. (2021). A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy. Review of Education, 9(2), 642-684.

    Principle: Interleavingdoi:10.1002/rev3.3266

  16. Latimier, A., Peyre, H. & Ramus, F. (2021). A meta-analytic review of the benefit of spacing out retrieval practice episodes on retention. Educational Psychology Review, 33(3), 959-987.

    Principle: Spaced repetitiondoi:10.1007/s10648-020-09572-8

  17. Samani, J. & Pan, S. C. (2021). Interleaved practice enhances memory and problem-solving ability in undergraduate physics. npj Science of Learning, 6, 32.

    Principle: Interleavingdoi:10.1038/s41539-021-00110-x

  18. Yang, C., Luo, L., Vadillo, M. A., Yu, R. & Shanks, D. R. (2021). Testing (quizzing) boosts classroom learning: a systematic and meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 147(4), 399-435.

    Principle: Retrieval practicedoi:10.1037/bul0000309

  19. Bai, S., Hew, K. F. & Huang, B. (2020). Does gamification improve student learning outcome? Evidence from a meta-analysis and synthesis of qualitative data in educational contexts. Educational Research Review, 30, 100322.

    Principle: Gamificationdoi:10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100322

  20. Bjork, R. A. & Bjork, E. L. (2020). Desirable difficulties in theory and practice. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 9(4), 475-479.

    Principle: Desirable difficultiesdoi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.09.003

  21. Huang, R., Ritzhaupt, A. D., Sommer, M., Zhu, J., Stephen, A., Valle, N., Hampton, J. & Li, J. (2020). The impact of gamification in educational settings on student learning outcomes: a meta-analysis. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(4), 1875-1901.

    Principle: Gamificationdoi:10.1007/s11423-020-09807-z

  22. Sailer, M. & Homner, L. (2020). The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 32(1), 77-112.

    Principle: Gamificationdoi:10.1007/s10648-019-09498-w

  23. Wisniewski, B., Zierer, K. & Hattie, J. (2020). The power of feedback revisited: a meta-analysis of educational feedback research. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 3087.

    Principle: Feedbackdoi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03087

  24. Adesope, O. O., Trevisan, D. A. & Sundararajan, N. (2017). Rethinking the use of tests: a meta-analysis of practice testing. Review of Educational Research, 87(3), 659-701.

    Principle: Retrieval practicedoi:10.3102/0034654316689306

  25. Sailer, M., Hense, J. U., Mayr, S. K. & Mandl, H. (2017). How gamification motivates: an experimental study of the effects of specific game design elements on psychological need satisfaction. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 371-380.

    Principle: Gamificationdoi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.033

  26. Settles, B. & Meeder, B. (2016). A trainable spaced repetition model for language learning. Proceedings of the 54th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2016), 1848-1858.

    Principle: Memory modeldoi:10.18653/v1/P16-1174

  27. Murre, J. M. J. & Dros, J. (2015). Replication and analysis of Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve. PLoS ONE, 10(7), e0120644.

    Principle: Forgetting curvedoi:10.1371/journal.pone.0120644

  28. Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J. & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques: promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.

    Principle: Learning techniquesdoi:10.1177/1529100612453266

  29. Little, J. L., Bjork, E. L., Bjork, R. A. & Angello, G. (2012). Multiple-choice tests exonerated, at least of some charges: fostering test-induced learning and avoiding test-induced forgetting. Psychological Science, 23(11), 1337-1344.

    Principle: Multiple-choice questionsdoi:10.1177/0956797612443370

  30. Butler, A. C. & Roediger, H. L. (2008). Feedback enhances the positive effects and reduces the negative effects of multiple-choice testing. Memory & Cognition, 36(3), 604-616.

    Principle: Feedbackdoi:10.3758/MC.36.3.604

  31. Cepeda, N. J., Vul, E., Rohrer, D., Wixted, J. T. & Pashler, H. (2008). Spacing effects in learning: a temporal ridgeline of optimal retention. Psychological Science, 19(11), 1095-1102.

    Principle: Spaced repetitiondoi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02209.x

  32. Hattie, J. & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81-112.

    Principle: Feedbackdoi:10.3102/003465430298487

  33. Rohrer, D. & Taylor, K. (2007). The shuffling of mathematics problems improves learning. Instructional Science, 35(6), 481-498.

    Principle: Interleavingdoi:10.1007/s11251-007-9015-8

  34. Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T. & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: a review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 354-380.

    Principle: Spaced repetitiondoi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354

  35. Roediger, H. L. & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-enhanced learning: taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychological Science, 17(3), 249-255.

    Principle: Retrieval practicedoi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x

  36. Bjork, R. A. (1994). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings. In J. Metcalfe & A. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: knowing about knowing. MIT Press, pp. 185-205.

    Principle: Desirable difficulties

  37. Paivio, A. & Csapo, K. (1973). Picture superiority in free recall: imagery or dual coding?. Cognitive Psychology, 5(2), 176-206.

    Principle: Picture superioritydoi:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90032-7

  38. Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Über das Gedächtnis: Untersuchungen zur experimentellen Psychologie. Duncker & Humblot.

    Principle: Forgetting curve

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